mtDNA Haplogroup U in South Asia: Ancient Maternal Roots

When we trace maternal ancestry through mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), we follow an unbroken chain of mothers and daughters stretching back tens of thousands of years. In South Asia, one of the most ancient and scientifically significant maternal lineages is haplogroup U - a macro-haplogroup that has been present on the subcontinent for approximately 50,000 years, making it a witness to nearly the entire history of modern humans in India.

Haplogroup U is not a single lineage but a diverse family of subclades, several of which are found almost exclusively in South Asia. Subclades like U2a, U2b, U2c, and the uniquely Indian U2i represent some of the deepest maternal roots in the subcontinent, predating the Neolithic revolution, the Indus Valley Civilization, and every subsequent migration event that shaped modern India. Meanwhile, U7 and U1 tell stories of connections to western Asia and the Iranian plateau.

This article provides a comprehensive guide to mtDNA haplogroup U in South Asia - its origins, subclades, age estimates, distribution across populations, and what it reveals about the pre-Neolithic maternal heritage of the Indian subcontinent.

Understanding Mitochondrial DNA and Maternal Lineages

Before diving into haplogroup U specifically, it is important to understand how mtDNA differs from other forms of genetic inheritance and why it is uniquely valuable for tracing maternal ancestry.

What Is Mitochondrial DNA?

Mitochondrial DNA is a small, circular genome of approximately 16,569 base pairs located in the mitochondria - the energy-producing organelles found in every human cell. Unlike the nuclear genome (which is inherited from both parents), mtDNA is inherited exclusively from the mother. A mother passes her mtDNA to all her children, but only her daughters will pass it on to the next generation.

Why mtDNA Matters for Ancestry

• Strict maternal inheritance: Because mtDNA does not recombine (unlike nuclear DNA), it is passed down intact from mother to daughter, accumulating mutations slowly over time. This creates a traceable "molecular clock" that can be used to estimate when lineages diverged.
• Deep time depth: mtDNA haplogroups can trace maternal ancestry back tens of thousands of years - far deeper than autosomal DNA, which becomes increasingly difficult to interpret beyond 10-15 generations.
• Population history: Because mtDNA tracks only the maternal line, it can reveal patterns that differ dramatically from Y-DNA (paternal) or autosomal (both parents) inheritance. In many historical migrations, men and women had very different genetic contributions to subsequent populations.
• Ancient DNA preservation: Due to the high copy number of mitochondria per cell (hundreds to thousands of copies), mtDNA is far more likely to survive in ancient remains than nuclear DNA, making it invaluable for archaeological genetics.

Haplogroup U: Overview and Origins

Haplogroup U is a major branch of the human mitochondrial DNA phylogenetic tree, defined by a set of mutations at specific positions in the mitochondrial genome. It is a daughter branch of macro-haplogroup R, which in turn descends from macro-haplogroup N - one of the two primary non-African lineages (N and M) that emerged from the Out of Africa migration approximately 60,000-70,000 years ago.

The Phylogenetic Position of Haplogroup U

• Mitochondrial Eve (L): The root of all human mtDNA, dating to approximately 150,000-200,000 years ago in Africa.
• L3: The African lineage from which all non-African mtDNA descends, dating to approximately 60,000-70,000 years ago.
• Macro-haplogroup N: One of two primary Out of Africa lineages (along with M), emerging approximately 55,000-65,000 years ago.
• Macro-haplogroup R: A major daughter branch of N, originating approximately 55,000-60,000 years ago. R is the ancestor of many European and South Asian haplogroups.
• Haplogroup U: A daughter branch of R, originating approximately 50,000-55,000 years ago, likely in western Asia or the Near East.

Haplogroup U then diversified into multiple subclades as its carriers spread across Eurasia. The major branches include U1 through U9 and the closely related haplogroup K (which is technically U8b). Different subclades took root in different geographic regions, with U5 becoming characteristic of Europe and U2, U7, and U1 becoming important in South Asia.

Age Estimates for Haplogroup U

• Haplogroup U overall: ~50,000-55,000 years before present (YBP)
• U2 (South Asian and European branches): ~45,000-50,000 YBP
• U2i (uniquely South Asian): ~40,000-50,000 YBP
• U2a (primarily South Asian): ~35,000-45,000 YBP
• U7 (western-South Asian): ~30,000-40,000 YBP
• U5 (European): ~30,000-40,000 YBP
• U1 (western Asian-South Asian): ~25,000-35,000 YBP

Haplogroup U Subclades in South Asia

South Asia hosts a remarkable diversity of haplogroup U subclades, each with its own age, geographic distribution, and population associations. The major South Asian U subclades are:

U2a - The Ancient South Asian Lineage

U2a is one of the most characteristic haplogroup U subclades in South Asia. It is found across the subcontinent at low to moderate frequencies (2-10%) and is particularly common among tribal populations of central and western India. U2a has an estimated age of 35,000-45,000 years in South Asia, making it one of the oldest identifiable maternal lineages on the subcontinent.

• Distribution: Found across India with higher frequencies in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and among various tribal groups.
• Population associations: Found in both tribal and caste populations, though at slightly higher frequencies in tribal groups. Present in Gujarati, Marathi, and Rajasthani populations.
• Significance: U2a's deep age and broad distribution suggest it was carried by some of the earliest maternal lineages to settle in western and central India.

U2b - The South-Central Indian Branch

U2b is a subclade found primarily in southern and central India. It has an estimated age of approximately 30,000-40,000 years and shows a distribution centered on Dravidian-speaking populations.

• Distribution: Concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and parts of Maharashtra.
• Population associations: Found at elevated frequencies among Dravidian-speaking communities, both tribal and non-tribal. Also detected among some Indo-Aryan-speaking groups in central India.
• Significance: U2b's geographic concentration in peninsular India suggests it may have been part of the maternal genetic foundation of Dravidian-speaking populations before the formation of the Indus Valley Civilization.

U2c - The Eastern Indian Branch

U2c is distributed mainly in eastern South Asia, including Bangladesh, eastern India (West Bengal, Odisha), and parts of Nepal. It has an estimated age of approximately 25,000-35,000 years.

• Distribution: Concentrated in Bangladesh and eastern India, with lower frequencies in North India and Nepal.
• Population associations: Found among Bengali, Odia, and Assamese populations, as well as among some tribal communities of eastern India.
• Significance: U2c represents a maternal lineage that diversified specifically in the eastern portion of the subcontinent, possibly indicating an ancient population center in the Gangetic delta or eastern India.

U2i - The Uniquely South Asian Subclade

U2i is perhaps the most significant haplogroup U subclade for understanding Indian genetic history. It is found almost exclusively in the Indian subcontinent, making it a uniquely South Asian maternal lineage. With an estimated age of 40,000-50,000 years, U2i is among the oldest identifiable maternal lineages specific to South Asia.

• Distribution: Found across India, with the highest frequencies among tribal populations of central and southern India (5-15% in some groups).
• Population associations: Strongly associated with Adivasi/tribal populations and lower-caste communities. Less frequent in upper-caste groups.
• Significance: U2i is considered a genetic marker of the Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI) maternal component - the oldest layer of South Asian ancestry. Its restriction to the Indian subcontinent and its deep age make it a powerful indicator of descent from the very first modern humans to settle in India.

U7 - The Western Asian Connection

Haplogroup U7 has a distribution that spans western Asia, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia. Unlike the U2 subclades that are primarily South Asian, U7 links India to its western neighbors and may be associated with Neolithic or Bronze Age population movements.

• Distribution: Found across India at frequencies of 2-8%, with higher frequencies in northwestern India (Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab) and Pakistan. Also found at significant frequencies in Iran (5-10%) and among some populations of Central Asia.
• Population associations: Found in both upper-caste and trading communities of western India. Particularly common among Gujarati, Sindhi, and Punjabi populations.
• Age: Approximately 30,000-40,000 years old. Some researchers have proposed that certain U7 lineages may have been brought to India with the spread of Iranian-related farmer ancestry during the Neolithic period (7,000-10,000 years ago), while the oldest U7 branches in India may be indigenous.

U1 - The Minority Branch

U1 is found at low frequencies (1-3%) across South Asia and western Asia. Like U7, it shows connections between the Indian subcontinent and the Iranian/Near Eastern region.

• Distribution: Low frequencies across India, with slightly higher presence in northwestern populations.
• Population associations: Found sporadically in various Indian communities without strong ethnic or caste correlations.
• Age: Approximately 25,000-35,000 years old. U1 is more common in the Near East and Caucasus region than in India, suggesting it may have entered South Asia through western migration routes.

mtDNA U Subclade Frequencies Across South Asian Populations

The following table presents estimated frequencies of haplogroup U subclades across various South Asian populations, based on published genetic studies:

Population	U2a (%)	U2b (%)	U2c (%)	U2i (%)	U7 (%)	Total U (%)
Central Indian Tribals	5-10	3-8	1-3	8-15	1-3	20-35
South Indian Tribals	3-7	5-12	0-2	5-10	0-2	15-30
Dravidian Caste Groups (South)	2-5	3-7	0-2	2-5	2-5	10-20
Gujarati Populations	4-8	1-3	0-1	1-3	5-10	12-22
Bengali Populations	1-3	1-3	5-10	2-5	2-4	12-20
North Indian Upper Castes	2-5	1-3	1-2	1-2	3-7	10-18
Punjabi / Northwestern	2-5	0-2	0-1	0-2	5-8	10-16
Pakistani Populations	2-4	0-2	0-1	0-1	5-12	10-18
Sri Lankan Sinhalese	2-5	2-5	1-3	2-5	1-3	10-18
Bangladeshi Populations	1-3	1-2	5-12	2-4	1-3	12-22

Key Patterns in the Distribution Data

1. U2i is highest in tribal populations: The uniquely South Asian subclade U2i consistently shows its highest frequencies among Adivasi/tribal communities of central and southern India, supporting its identification as a marker of the most ancient South Asian maternal ancestry.
2. U7 shifts westward: U7 frequencies increase as we move from eastern to western South Asia, reaching their highest levels in Gujarat, Sindh, and Punjab. This reflects U7's connections to Iranian and Near Eastern populations.
3. U2c is eastern: U2c is distinctly concentrated in Bangladesh and eastern India, representing a maternal lineage that diversified in the eastern portion of the subcontinent.
4. Total U frequency is remarkably stable: Despite the varying subclade compositions, total haplogroup U frequency remains relatively stable at 10-25% across most South Asian populations, suggesting that U has been a fundamental component of the South Asian maternal gene pool for tens of thousands of years.
5. Tribal vs. caste differences: Tribal populations tend to have higher frequencies of the oldest U subclades (U2i, U2a, U2b), while caste populations, particularly upper castes, tend to have relatively higher U7 and U1, reflecting later western Asian admixture.

What Haplogroup U Reveals About Pre-Neolithic India

The deep age of haplogroup U subclades in South Asia makes them invaluable for understanding India before the advent of agriculture, urbanization, and the major migration events that reshaped the subcontinent's demographics:

The First South Asians

Modern humans first reached South Asia approximately 50,000-70,000 years ago, likely traveling along the southern coast from Africa through the Arabian Peninsula. These earliest settlers carried mtDNA lineages from both macro-haplogroup M and macro-haplogroup N/R. Haplogroup U, as a daughter of R, was among the founding maternal lineages of South Asia.

The fact that U2i diversified within India approximately 40,000-50,000 years ago tells us that by that time, a stable, genetically distinct population of women carrying U lineages was already established in the subcontinent. These women and their descendants would form part of what geneticists now call the Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI) population - the deepest indigenous layer of South Asian ancestry.

Hunter-Gatherer Continuity

For approximately 40,000 years before the Neolithic transition, South Asia was inhabited by hunter-gatherer populations who left relatively little archaeological trace compared to later agricultural societies. However, their maternal genetic legacy lives on in the U2 subclades found in modern Indian populations.

The persistence of U2i and other ancient U subclades at significant frequencies in modern tribal populations suggests a remarkable degree of maternal genetic continuity - women carrying these lineages have been passing them down, mother to daughter, for over 40,000 years without interruption. This is one of the longest documented examples of continuous maternal inheritance in human populations outside of Africa.

Pre-Neolithic Population Structure

The geographic distribution of U2 subclades provides clues about population structure in pre-Neolithic India:

• U2a in the west-center: Suggests a population cluster in what is now Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra.
• U2b in the south-center: Suggests a population cluster in peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu).
• U2c in the east: Suggests a population cluster in the Gangetic delta and eastern India.
• U2i broadly distributed: Suggests a maternal lineage that was widespread before regional differentiation occurred.

This pattern suggests that by the Late Pleistocene (30,000-40,000 years ago), South Asia already had regionally differentiated populations with distinct maternal genetic profiles - a complexity that is often underappreciated in popular accounts of Indian genetic history.

Comparison with Other Major Indian mtDNA Haplogroups

To appreciate haplogroup U's place in South Asian genetics, it is essential to compare it with the other major mtDNA haplogroups found in India:

Macro-haplogroup M: India's Dominant Maternal Lineage

Macro-haplogroup M is the single most important mtDNA lineage in India, accounting for approximately 50-60% of all Indian maternal lineages. Like haplogroup U's parent lineage R, M descends from the Out of Africa migration, but through a separate branch (L3 > M, rather than L3 > N > R > U).

• Age in South Asia: ~55,000-65,000 years, making it at least as old as haplogroup U.
• Diversity: M has spawned an enormous number of South Asian-specific subclades (M2, M3, M4, M5, M6, M18, M25, M30, M33, M35, M38, M39, M40, M41, M42, M43, M44, M45, etc.), many of which are found only in India.
• Distribution: Found across all Indian populations at high frequencies, from tribal to upper-caste, from north to south.
• Comparison with U: While M is far more frequent than U in India, haplogroup U provides complementary information about maternal ancestry. The ratio of M to U/R lineages varies across populations and can reveal patterns of ancient population structure.

Macro-haplogroup R (non-U): Other R Branches in India

Besides haplogroup U, several other R-derived lineages are found in South Asia:

• R5: A South Asian-specific lineage found at frequencies of 2-5% across India.
• R6: Another India-specific R subclade, found at low frequencies (1-3%).
• R7, R8, R30, R31: Various other R branches endemic to South Asia, collectively accounting for 5-10% of Indian maternal lineages.
• Comparison with U: These R subclades have similar deep ages (30,000-50,000 years) and together with U form the R-derived component of Indian maternal ancestry, accounting for approximately 20-30% of all Indian maternal lineages.

Haplogroup N (non-R): Rare but Present

Some N-derived lineages that are not part of R are also found in India, including haplogroup W (2-5% in some North Indian populations) and haplogroup N1 (rare). These lineages often show western Asian affinities and may be associated with more recent population movements.

Western Eurasian Haplogroups: Later Arrivals

Several haplogroups that are primarily associated with European and western Asian populations are found at low to moderate frequencies in India:

• H: The most common European mtDNA haplogroup, found at 1-5% in India (higher in northwestern populations).
• HV: Found at low frequencies (1-3%) in some Indian populations.
• J and T: Found at 1-5% in various Indian populations, particularly in the northwest.
• Comparison with U: Unlike haplogroup U, which has been in India for ~50,000 years, these western Eurasian haplogroups likely arrived during more recent migration events (Neolithic farming expansion, Indo-Aryan migration, or historical-era movements). Their presence highlights the distinction between ancient U lineages (indigenous since initial settlement) and more recently arrived maternal lineages.

Haplogroup U and the Impact of Later Migrations

While haplogroup U subclades represent some of India's oldest maternal lineages, they have been affected by the major migration events that reshaped South Asian demographics over the past 10,000 years:

The Neolithic Transition (~7,000-10,000 Years Ago)

The spread of farming across South Asia brought Iranian-related ancestry into the subcontinent. This period may have introduced or amplified certain U7 lineages in western India, while the older U2 lineages in tribal populations remained relatively unaffected in the forested highlands and remote areas where hunter-gatherer lifestyles persisted longer.

The Indus Valley Civilization (~5,300-3,300 Years Ago)

The IVC population, which was a mixture of Iranian-related ancestry and AASI, likely carried a combination of haplogroup U subclades. The older U2 lineages would have represented the AASI maternal component, while U7 and possibly U1 may have been more associated with the Iranian-related component. Unfortunately, the scarcity of ancient DNA from IVC sites means we cannot yet directly confirm this hypothesis.

The Indo-Aryan / Steppe Migration (~3,500-4,000 Years Ago)

The arrival of steppe-related ancestry in South Asia introduced western Eurasian maternal lineages (H, HV, J, T, W) into the Indian gene pool. However, the steppe migration in South Asia was strongly male-biased, meaning that steppe Y-DNA haplogroups (particularly R1a-Z93) became widespread while steppe mtDNA haplogroups remained relatively rare. As a result, haplogroup U and macro-haplogroup M maintained their dominance in the maternal gene pool even as paternal lineages changed dramatically.

This male-biased migration pattern means that the maternal genetic landscape of India was less disrupted by the steppe migration than the paternal landscape. While Y-DNA haplogroups in many Indian populations shifted significantly toward R1a and other steppe-associated lineages, mtDNA remained predominantly M and R/U - the ancient South Asian maternal signatures.

How Maternal Lineage Testing Works

For individuals interested in discovering their own mtDNA haplogroup and potential connection to haplogroup U, understanding how maternal lineage testing works is essential:

What Is Tested

Maternal lineage testing analyzes specific regions of the mitochondrial genome:

• HVR1 (Hypervariable Region 1): Positions 16024-16569 of the mtDNA. This region mutates relatively quickly and provides basic haplogroup classification.
• HVR2 (Hypervariable Region 2): Positions 1-576 of the mtDNA. Combined with HVR1, it provides more precise subclade assignment.
• Full Mitogenome Sequencing: Analysis of all 16,569 positions in the mitochondrial genome. This provides the most detailed haplogroup assignment possible, down to the finest sub-branches.

What You Can Learn

• Your mtDNA haplogroup: The specific branch of the human maternal tree that your mother's mother's mother (and so on) belonged to.
• Geographic origins: Where your maternal lineage was located at various points in prehistory.
• Deep ancestry: Connections to ancient populations that lived tens of thousands of years ago.
• Migration history: The route your maternal ancestors took from Africa to their eventual homeland.

Important Caveats

• Single lineage only: mtDNA traces only one of your many ancestral lines. You have two parents, four grandparents, eight great-grandparents, and so on. Your mtDNA haplogroup represents only the strictly maternal line (mother's mother's mother...).
• Both men and women carry mtDNA: Unlike Y-DNA (which is male-only), both men and women inherit mtDNA from their mothers and can be tested for maternal haplogroup.
• Deep vs. recent ancestry: An mtDNA haplogroup tells you about your deep maternal ancestry (thousands of years), not about your recent family history (the last few generations). Two people with the same mtDNA haplogroup may share a common maternal ancestor who lived 10,000 years ago.

Tribal vs. Non-Tribal: The Maternal Heritage Divide

One of the most significant findings from mtDNA studies in India is the difference in haplogroup U composition between tribal (Adivasi) and non-tribal (caste) populations:

Tribal Populations

• Higher frequencies of ancient U subclades: Tribal populations consistently show higher frequencies of U2i, U2a, and U2b - the oldest U subclades in South Asia.
• Lower frequencies of western Asian U subclades: U7 and U1, which have connections to western Asian populations, are generally less common in tribal groups.
• Higher overall maternal diversity: Some tribal populations preserve rare and ancient mtDNA lineages that have been lost or diluted in caste populations through later admixture events.
• Genetic drift effects: Small, isolated tribal populations have experienced genetic drift, which can amplify or reduce the frequency of any haplogroup. Some tribal groups show very high U2 frequencies due to drift, while others have lost U2 entirely for the same reason.

Non-Tribal (Caste) Populations

• More balanced U subclade composition: Caste populations tend to show a more even distribution of U subclades, reflecting their history of admixture with multiple source populations.
• Higher U7 frequencies: Particularly in northwestern India, U7 is more common in caste populations than in tribal groups, reflecting the influence of Iranian-related and possibly steppe-related maternal ancestry.
• Regional variation: Upper-caste populations in different regions show different U subclade profiles, reflecting the complex interplay between caste endogamy, regional history, and migration events.

This tribal/caste divide in haplogroup U composition illustrates a broader principle in Indian genetics: tribal populations tend to preserve older genetic signatures, while caste populations show the accumulated effects of multiple waves of admixture over the past 10,000 years.

Haplogroup U in Ancient DNA Studies

Although ancient DNA from South Asia is scarce due to the tropical climate, several important ancient DNA findings have shed light on haplogroup U's deep history:

• Rakhigarhi (IVC, ~2500 BCE): The ancient DNA from the Indus Valley Civilization individual at Rakhigarhi belonged to mtDNA haplogroup U2b, directly confirming the presence of haplogroup U in the IVC population. This is consistent with the prediction that U2 lineages were part of the indigenous South Asian maternal component of the Harappan population.
• Roopkund Lake (medieval period): Ancient DNA from the mysterious Roopkund Lake skeletons in Uttarakhand identified haplogroup U among the individuals of South Asian ancestry, confirming its continued presence in historical-era populations.
• Central Asian and Iranian comparisons: Ancient DNA from Neolithic Iran and Bronze Age Central Asia has helped researchers distinguish between U subclades that were indigenous to South Asia (U2a, U2b, U2i) and those that may have arrived from the west (U7, U1).

Frequently Asked Questions

How old is haplogroup U in India?

Haplogroup U has been present in South Asia for approximately 50,000 years, making it one of the oldest maternal lineages on the subcontinent. The macro-haplogroup U itself originated around 50,000-55,000 years ago in western Asia, shortly after the Out of Africa migration. South Asian-specific subclades like U2i have coalescence ages of 40,000-50,000 years, placing them among the earliest identifiable maternal lineages of the Indian subcontinent. This means U-carrying women were among the first modern humans to settle in India after the Out of Africa migration.

What is haplogroup U2i?

Haplogroup U2i is a mitochondrial DNA subclade that is uniquely South Asian. Unlike other U2 subclades that have distributions spanning multiple continents, U2i is found almost exclusively in the Indian subcontinent, particularly among tribal and lower-caste populations of central and southern India. Its estimated age of 40,000-50,000 years makes it one of the oldest identifiable maternal lineages specific to South Asia. U2i is considered a genetic marker of the Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI) maternal heritage, representing women whose lineages have been in India since the earliest settlement by modern humans.

Is haplogroup U European or Indian?

Haplogroup U is found across both Europe and South Asia because it is very ancient, originating approximately 50,000-55,000 years ago in western Asia before populations spread to both continents. However, the subclades found in each region are largely different. European populations are dominated by U5 and U4, while South Asian populations carry primarily U2 (U2a, U2b, U2c, U2i), U7, and U1. The South Asian U subclades, particularly U2i, are among the oldest branches of haplogroup U anywhere in the world, and the deep diversity of U2 in India suggests the subcontinent was one of the earliest regions where haplogroup U diversified after the Out of Africa migration.

What percentage of Indians carry mtDNA haplogroup U?

Approximately 10-20% of Indians carry some form of mtDNA haplogroup U, though this varies significantly by region and population. Among tribal populations of central and southern India, U2 subclades can reach combined frequencies of 15-30%. In upper-caste North Indian populations, U7 and U1 are more common, with total U frequencies of 10-15%. Across all South Asian populations, haplogroup U is the second most important maternal macro-haplogroup after macro-haplogroup M, which accounts for approximately 50-60% of Indian maternal lineages.

Conclusion

Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U represents one of the most ancient and enduring maternal lineages in South Asia. Its presence in the subcontinent for approximately 50,000 years means that U-carrying women have been part of every chapter of Indian history - from the initial settlement of the subcontinent by Out of Africa migrants, through the tens of thousands of years of hunter-gatherer existence, the Neolithic transition, the rise and fall of the Indus Valley Civilization, and every subsequent demographic transformation.

The diversity of U subclades in South Asia - from the uniquely Indian U2i to the western-connected U7, from the south-central U2b to the eastern U2c - reveals that even the earliest maternal lineages in India were not uniform. They diversified into regionally distinct branches that still echo in the genetic makeup of modern populations, providing a maternal counterpoint to the better-known paternal (Y-DNA) and autosomal ancestry narratives.

Perhaps most remarkably, haplogroup U's persistence at significant frequencies despite 50,000 years of demographic change demonstrates the resilience of maternal lineages. While empires rose and fell, languages changed, and paternal lineages shifted with each new migration wave, the maternal genetic thread of haplogroup U was passed quietly from mother to daughter, generation after generation, forming an unbroken chain that connects modern Indian women (and, through their mothers, all Indians) to the very first inhabitants of the subcontinent.

Want to discover your own maternal haplogroup and explore whether you carry one of India's most ancient maternal lineages? Order your Helixline DNA kit and trace your maternal ancestry back through the deep history of South Asia.