Y-DNA Haplogroup Frequencies Across Indian States

India is one of the most genetically diverse nations on Earth. With over 4,600 distinct population groups, four major language families, and millennia of complex migration history, the subcontinent is a living laboratory of human genetic diversity. Nowhere is this diversity more visible than in the distribution of Y-DNA haplogroups - the paternal lineage markers passed from father to son through the Y chromosome.

Understanding Y-DNA haplogroup frequencies across Indian states reveals the deep layered history of male-line migrations that shaped the country's population. From the earliest Out-of-Africa settlers who arrived over 50,000 years ago to the Bronze Age pastoralists who entered from Central Asia around 2000 BCE, each wave of migration left a distinct genetic signature that persists in living Indians today.

This comprehensive guide examines the major Y-DNA haplogroups found in India, their frequencies across different states and regions, and what these patterns tell us about the subcontinent's remarkable history.

The Major Y-DNA Haplogroups of India

Before diving into state-wise data, let us introduce the eight primary Y-DNA haplogroups that together account for over 90% of Indian male lineages. Each haplogroup tells a different story about the ancestry and migration history of the men who carry it.

R1a-M17 (R1a1a)

R1a is perhaps the most discussed haplogroup in the context of Indian population genetics. Its subclade R1a-Z93 is strongly associated with the Bronze Age expansion of Indo-European-speaking pastoralists from the Pontic-Caspian steppe into South Asia around 2000-1500 BCE. In India, R1a is found at its highest frequencies among upper-caste Indo-Aryan-speaking populations in the north and northwest, particularly among Brahmins and Kshatriyas. The subclade R1a-L657, which branched off from Z93, appears to be almost exclusively South Asian, suggesting a founder effect during the initial migration and subsequent expansion within the subcontinent.

Pan-Indian frequency estimates for R1a range from 15-25%, but this average masks enormous regional variation. In Punjab and Haryana, R1a can exceed 45-50% in certain caste groups, while in tribal populations of southern and eastern India, it may be virtually absent.

R2-M124

R2 is a much rarer haplogroup globally but has a notable presence in South Asia, where it reaches frequencies of 5-15% in various populations. Unlike its cousin R1a, R2 does not appear to be associated with the steppe migration. Its highest frequencies are found in parts of western and central India, including Gujarat, Maharashtra, and among certain Dravidian-speaking communities. Some researchers hypothesize that R2 may have been present in the subcontinent well before the Bronze Age steppe migrations, possibly entering South Asia during the Neolithic or even earlier. R2 is also found at low frequencies in Central Asia and the Caucasus.

H-M69

Haplogroup H-M69 is one of the oldest and most distinctly South Asian Y-DNA lineages. It is believed to have originated in the Indian subcontinent approximately 30,000-40,000 years ago and is rarely found outside of South Asia and among the Romani (Roma) populations of Europe, who trace their ancestry to medieval Indian migrants. H-M69 is the single most common Y-DNA haplogroup in India when all populations are averaged together, with a pan-Indian frequency of approximately 20-30%.

H-M69 frequencies are highest among Dravidian-speaking populations and tribal groups of central and southern India, where they can reach 40-55%. Among Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes, H-M69 is often the dominant haplogroup. Its presence at substantial frequencies even in North Indian populations underscores that all Indians carry deep indigenous South Asian ancestry alongside later migrant lineages.

L-M20

Haplogroup L-M20 is another predominantly South Asian lineage, with its highest global frequencies found in India and Pakistan. It is estimated to have originated approximately 25,000-30,000 years ago, likely in the western part of the subcontinent. L-M20 is found at frequencies of 10-20% across much of India, with peaks in Dravidian-speaking southern populations and among certain communities in Gujarat and Maharashtra.

L-M20 is of particular interest because of its presence in the Indus Valley Civilization region. Some researchers have suggested that it may have been one of the major paternal lineages among the Harappan people, given its distribution pattern and antiquity. However, direct ancient DNA evidence for this hypothesis is still limited.

J2-M172

Haplogroup J2 is found across a wide arc from the Mediterranean to South Asia, with its highest global frequencies in the Near East and the Caucasus. In India, J2 is found at frequencies of 5-15%, with notable concentrations in western and southern India. Its subclade J2a is particularly common among Dravidian-speaking populations of South India and certain mercantile communities across the subcontinent.

The presence of J2 in India is generally attributed to Neolithic-era migration and gene flow from West Asia, possibly associated with the spread of agriculture or trade networks. Its distribution shows interesting clustering among certain occupational castes, particularly trading and priestly communities in South India. Some J2 lineages in India may also trace back to the broader interaction sphere of the Indus Valley Civilization with Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf.

O2a-M95 (O2a1-M95)

Haplogroup O2a is the signature Y-DNA marker of Austro-Asiatic-speaking populations, with its highest global frequencies found among the Munda tribal groups of eastern and central India as well as among Mon-Khmer speakers of mainland Southeast Asia. In India, O2a frequencies are highest in the states of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal, particularly among Munda, Santhal, Ho, and Kharia tribal populations where it can exceed 60-70%.

The distribution of O2a in India reflects the migration of Austro-Asiatic-speaking peoples, who are believed to have entered the subcontinent from Southeast Asia sometime between 4,000 and 3,500 years ago. Outside of Austro-Asiatic tribal groups, O2a drops sharply in frequency, occurring at less than 5% in most non-tribal Indian populations.

C-M130

Haplogroup C is one of the earliest lineages to have left Africa, with an estimated age of approximately 50,000-60,000 years. In India, the relevant subclade is primarily C-M130 (especially C-M356, which is nearly unique to South Asia). C is found at modest frequencies of 3-8% across India, with somewhat higher frequencies among certain tribal populations and in parts of western India, particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan.

The antiquity of haplogroup C in South Asia is remarkable - it is likely one of the very first paternal lineages to have reached the subcontinent during the initial Out-of-Africa dispersal along the southern coastal route. Among the Andamanese islanders, another branch of haplogroup C reaches very high frequencies, underscoring its deep roots in the earliest settlement of South Asia.

D-M174

Haplogroup D is a fascinating and ancient lineage with a highly disjunct global distribution. It is found at high frequencies among Tibetan populations, Japanese (particularly Ainu and Jomon-descended groups), and the Andamanese islanders, but is largely absent from most continental populations in between. In mainland India, haplogroup D is found primarily among Tibeto-Burman-speaking populations of the northeastern states, particularly in Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Nagaland, as well as among a few isolated tribal groups in central India.

Among the Onge and Jarawa of the Andaman Islands, haplogroup D (specifically D-M174*) is found at extraordinarily high frequencies of 60-100%, representing one of the oldest unbroken paternal lineages in the world, dating back to the earliest settlement of the islands over 25,000 years ago.

Y-DNA Haplogroup Frequencies by Indian State and Region

The following table presents estimated Y-DNA haplogroup frequencies across major Indian states and regions. These figures are compiled from published population genetics studies and represent approximate frequencies averaged across caste and tribal populations within each region. Individual communities within any state may deviate significantly from these averages.

State / Region	R1a	H-M69	L-M20	J2	O2a	R2	Others
Punjab / Haryana	40-50%	10-15%	8-12%	8-12%	<2%	5-8%	10-18%
Uttar Pradesh	30-45%	15-25%	8-12%	5-10%	2-5%	5-8%	10-15%
Rajasthan	25-35%	18-25%	10-15%	5-10%	<2%	5-10%	10-18%
Gujarat	15-25%	15-25%	12-18%	8-15%	<2%	8-12%	10-18%
Maharashtra	15-25%	20-30%	12-18%	8-12%	2-5%	5-10%	10-15%
Bihar	25-35%	18-25%	5-10%	5-8%	8-15%	3-8%	10-18%
West Bengal	20-30%	15-22%	5-8%	5-8%	10-20%	3-5%	12-20%
Tamil Nadu	5-12%	25-35%	18-25%	12-18%	<2%	5-8%	10-15%
Kerala	8-15%	22-30%	15-22%	10-18%	<2%	5-8%	10-15%
Karnataka	10-18%	22-32%	15-20%	10-15%	<2%	5-8%	10-18%
Andhra Pradesh / Telangana	10-18%	25-35%	12-18%	10-15%	2-5%	5-8%	10-15%
Odisha	12-20%	20-30%	8-12%	5-8%	15-25%	3-5%	10-15%
Jharkhand / Chhattisgarh	10-18%	20-30%	5-10%	3-8%	20-35%	2-5%	10-15%
NE States (Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur)	<3%	<5%	<3%	<3%	30-50%	<2%	35-55% (O3, D, C)
Arunachal Pradesh	<2%	<3%	<2%	<2%	25-40%	<2%	45-60% (O3, D, C)
Assam	8-15%	10-18%	3-8%	3-8%	15-25%	2-5%	20-35% (O3, D)

Linguistic Families and Y-DNA Correlations

One of the most striking patterns in Indian Y-DNA distribution is the strong correlation between haplogroup frequencies and linguistic affiliation. India is home to four major language families, and each shows a characteristic paternal lineage signature.

Indo-Aryan Speakers and R1a Dominance

The Indo-Aryan language family, spoken by approximately 75% of Indians across the Hindi belt, Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bengal, and beyond, shows a clear association with haplogroup R1a-Z93. Among upper-caste Indo-Aryan speakers, R1a frequencies commonly exceed 35-50%, making it their dominant paternal lineage. This pattern is strongest among Brahmins - for instance, West Bengali Brahmins show R1a frequencies of approximately 72%, UP Brahmins around 67%, and even South Indian Brahmins who speak Dravidian languages show elevated R1a (30-40%) compared to their non-Brahmin neighbors.

The R1a-Z93 connection to Indo-Aryan languages is supported by the parallel distribution of this subclade along the known route of Indo-European expansion. The same subclade is found in Central Asian populations, among the Sintashta archaeological culture, and shows a time depth in South Asia consistent with arrival around 2000-1500 BCE. However, it is important to note that R1a presence does not equate to Indo-Aryan identity - many communities that have spoken Dravidian or other languages for millennia also carry R1a at modest frequencies through historical admixture.

Dravidian Speakers: H-M69, L-M20, and J2

Dravidian-speaking populations of South India (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam) show a distinctive Y-DNA profile dominated by three haplogroups: H-M69, L-M20, and J2. Together, these three lineages typically account for 50-75% of paternal chromosomes in Dravidian-speaking communities.

• H-M69 is the most common single haplogroup in most Dravidian populations, found at 25-40%. It represents the deepest indigenous South Asian paternal ancestry.
• L-M20 is the second major component at 15-25%, also indigenous to South Asia with possible connections to the Indus Valley Civilization region.
• J2 appears at 10-18% in many South Indian populations, likely reflecting Neolithic-era connections with West Asia and the Iranian plateau.

This combination of haplogroups suggests that Dravidian-speaking populations preserve the oldest layers of South Asian paternal ancestry, with less genetic impact from the later steppe migration that brought R1a into the subcontinent. The relatively low R1a in Dravidian populations (5-15% on average, mostly in Brahmin and certain other upper-caste groups) stands in sharp contrast to the 35-50% seen among upper-caste Indo-Aryan speakers.

Austro-Asiatic Speakers: The O2a Signal

The Austro-Asiatic language family in India is represented primarily by the Munda branch, spoken by tribal populations in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal. These populations show a remarkably distinctive Y-DNA profile dominated by haplogroup O2a-M95, which can reach 60-75% in groups like the Mundari, Ho, Santhal, and Kharia.

O2a-M95 is rare to absent in most non-Austro-Asiatic Indian populations but is very common in mainland Southeast Asian populations, particularly among Mon-Khmer speakers in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand. The presence of this East/Southeast Asian haplogroup among Indian tribals provides powerful genetic evidence for the Austro-Asiatic migration from Southeast Asia into the Indian subcontinent, estimated at approximately 3,500-4,000 years ago based on both linguistic and genetic dating.

Interestingly, while Munda-speaking tribals carry predominantly East Asian paternal lineages (O2a), their autosomal DNA shows a primarily South Asian signature. This suggests that the Austro-Asiatic migration may have been male-biased - a smaller number of O2a-carrying men entered the subcontinent and married local women, creating communities that spoke Austro-Asiatic languages but were predominantly South Asian in overall ancestry.

Tibeto-Burman Speakers: O and D Lineages

The Tibeto-Burman language family dominates India's northeastern states - Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and parts of Assam and Meghalaya. Populations in these regions show a Y-DNA profile that is dramatically different from the rest of India, dominated by haplogroups O (especially O3/O-M175, now reclassified as O2) and D-M174.

Haplogroup O (combining O2a and O3 subclades) typically accounts for 50-80% of paternal lineages in Tibeto-Burman populations of Northeast India. D-M174, which is found at high frequencies among Tibetans and Japanese populations, reaches 10-30% in some Arunachal Pradesh groups. The standard South Asian haplogroups (H, L, R1a, J2) are found at only trace frequencies in these populations.

This genetic profile reflects the distinct East Asian origins of Tibeto-Burman-speaking peoples, who entered northeastern India through migrations from southern China and Myanmar over the past several thousand years. The sharp genetic boundary between northeastern and mainland Indian populations is one of the most dramatic examples of how Y-DNA haplogroup geography tracks linguistic and cultural boundaries.

State-by-State Deep Dive

Punjab and Haryana

The northwestern states of Punjab and Haryana consistently show the highest R1a frequencies in India, often exceeding 40-50% in Jat, Khatri, and Brahmin populations. This region lies at the geographic gateway through which Bronze Age steppe pastoralists entered the subcontinent, and the elevated R1a reflects this deep historical connection. J2 is also notable at 8-12%, possibly reflecting older Neolithic-era connections. H-M69 is present but at lower frequencies (10-15%) compared to more southern regions, and L-M20 is found at 8-12%.

Uttar Pradesh

India's most populous state shows a mixed haplogroup profile reflecting its position as a geographic and cultural transition zone. R1a is high at 30-45% (particularly among Brahmins and Rajputs, where it can exceed 60%), while H-M69 is substantial at 15-25%, particularly among OBC and SC/ST populations. Eastern UP shows some O2a influence from neighboring Bihar and Jharkhand. L-M20 and J2 are present at moderate frequencies.

Bihar

Bihar shows an interesting transitional pattern. R1a remains significant at 25-35% in upper-caste populations, but the state's large tribal and lower-caste populations bring up H-M69 (18-25%) and O2a (8-15%). The O2a presence reflects the influence of Austro-Asiatic (Munda) tribal populations, particularly in southern Bihar near Jharkhand. Bihar's Y-DNA profile thus captures the meeting point of Indo-Aryan, indigenous South Asian, and Austro-Asiatic paternal lineages.

West Bengal

Bengal's haplogroup profile is notably diverse. R1a is present at 20-30% (with very high concentrations among Bengali Brahmins at up to 72%), while O2a is significant at 10-20%, reflecting both the Munda tribal substrate and possible gene flow from eastern Asian populations. H-M69 contributes 15-22%, and J2 is found at 5-8%. The substantial O2a in Bengal is unique among major Indo-Aryan-speaking regions and reflects the demographic influence of Austro-Asiatic populations in the state's history.

Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu presents the classic South Indian Dravidian haplogroup profile. H-M69 dominates at 25-35%, followed by L-M20 at 18-25% and J2 at 12-18%. R1a is relatively low at 5-12%, found mainly among Brahmin communities (where it can reach 30-40%). Among non-Brahmin Tamil populations, R1a is typically below 8%. This profile, with its emphasis on indigenous South Asian lineages and minimal steppe influence, aligns with Tamil Nadu's deep Dravidian linguistic and cultural heritage.

Kerala

Kerala shows a haplogroup profile similar to Tamil Nadu but with some distinct features. H-M69 is high at 22-30%, L-M20 at 15-22%, and J2 is notable at 10-18%. The J2 frequency in Kerala is among the highest in India, possibly reflecting historical maritime connections with West Asia. Some Nair and Ezhava communities show particularly interesting haplogroup distributions. R1a among Namboothiri Brahmins is elevated (35-45%), but among the general Kerala population it remains at 8-15%.

Karnataka

Karnataka occupies a geographic and genetic transition zone between the Indo-Aryan north and the Dravidian south. H-M69 is the dominant haplogroup at 22-32%, with L-M20 at 15-20% and J2 at 10-15%. R1a is somewhat higher than in Tamil Nadu, at 10-18%, reflecting historical admixture with northern populations. Among Lingayat communities, the haplogroup distribution shows distinctive patterns compared to other Karnataka groups. Brahmin populations in Karnataka show the expected elevation of R1a to approximately 30-40%.

Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

The Telugu-speaking states show a profile broadly similar to other Dravidian-speaking regions, with H-M69 dominant at 25-35%, followed by L-M20 at 12-18%, J2 at 10-15%, and R1a at 10-18%. The slightly higher R1a compared to Tamil Nadu may reflect the greater historical interaction between the Deccan Plateau and northern India. Among Reddy and Kamma communities, R1a is somewhat elevated, while among tribal populations like the Gonds (who speak Dravidian languages), H-M69 can exceed 40%.

Gujarat

Gujarat shows a genuinely diverse haplogroup profile reflecting its position at the crossroads of multiple migration routes. R1a is moderate at 15-25%, H-M69 is significant at 15-25%, and both L-M20 (12-18%) and J2 (8-15%) are notable. R2 is somewhat elevated in Gujarat at 8-12% compared to the national average. Gujarat's position on the western coast and its proximity to the former Indus Valley Civilization heartland are reflected in its balanced mix of steppe-derived, indigenous South Asian, and western Asian paternal lineages.

Maharashtra

Maharashtra sits at the geographic intersection of North and South India, and its haplogroup profile reflects this. H-M69 is the leading haplogroup at 20-30%, with R1a at 15-25% and L-M20 at 12-18%. J2 is notable at 8-12%. Among Maratha, Brahmin, and CKP communities, R1a tends to be higher, while among Mahar and Matang communities, H-M69 frequencies increase. The Chitpavan Brahmin community of Maharashtra has been noted for unusually high frequencies of certain subclades that differ from other Indian Brahmin populations.

Rajasthan

Rajasthan shows a profile intermediate between Punjab and central India. R1a is significant at 25-35%, particularly among Rajput and Brahmin communities where it can be the dominant haplogroup. H-M69 is substantial at 18-25%, especially among tribal populations like the Bhils and Meenas. L-M20 is found at 10-15%, and C-M130 (specifically C-M356) is somewhat elevated in Rajasthan compared to other regions, found at 5-10% in some communities.

Northeast Indian States

The states of Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh stand out dramatically from the rest of India in their Y-DNA profiles. The dominant haplogroups are O2 (O3/O-M175 at 30-50%) and O2a-M95 (15-30%), with haplogroup D-M174 reaching 10-25% in some groups. Traditional South Asian haplogroups like R1a, H, and L are found at only trace frequencies (collectively under 10%). Assam, with its mixed Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Aryan population, shows an intermediate profile with significant O2a (15-25%) alongside moderate H-M69 (10-18%) and R1a (8-15%).

Historical Migration Patterns Revealed by Y-DNA

The Y-DNA haplogroup map of India is essentially a palimpsest - a layered record of successive migration events, each leaving its own genetic signature. By reading these layers, population geneticists can reconstruct the major chapters of male-line migration into and within the subcontinent.

Layer 1: The First South Asians (50,000+ Years Ago)

The oldest Y-DNA lineages in India - haplogroups C-M130, D-M174, and F-M89 (ancestral to H, L, and many others) - represent the very first modern humans to reach South Asia during the Out-of-Africa dispersal. The Andamanese islanders, carrying haplogroups C and D at very high frequencies, are the closest living representatives of this earliest settlement layer. On the mainland, haplogroup H-M69 (a descendant of the broader F lineage) emerged and expanded as one of the earliest lineages to diversify within South Asia.

Layer 2: The Indigenous Diversification (30,000-10,000 Years Ago)

During the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene, haplogroups H-M69 and L-M20 underwent major expansions within South Asia. This period saw the development of the indigenous genetic diversity that still forms the backbone of most Indian populations. The high frequencies of H and L across virtually all Indian populations (including in the north) demonstrate that these lineages were widespread before later migrations introduced R1a and other lineages.

Layer 3: Neolithic and West Asian Connections (10,000-5,000 Years Ago)

Haplogroup J2 likely entered South Asia during the Neolithic period, possibly associated with the westward expansion of farming or with trade connections between the Indus Valley region and Mesopotamia. The J2 signature in India is particularly notable in the western and southern parts of the subcontinent, consistent with maritime and overland connections with the Near East. Some R2 lineages may also date to this period.

Layer 4: The Bronze Age Steppe Migration (2000-1500 BCE)

The arrival of R1a-Z93 in South Asia is among the most significant genetic events in Indian history. Associated with the spread of Indo-European languages, Vedic culture, and the horse-drawn chariot, this migration brought steppe pastoralist ancestry into the subcontinent. The distribution of R1a today - highest in the northwest, declining toward the south and east, elevated among upper castes - preserves the geographic and social imprint of this Bronze Age migration.

Layer 5: Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman Migrations (4,000-2,000 Years Ago)

The O2a signature among Munda-speaking tribals and the O/D profile of northeastern populations represent separate East Asian migration streams. The Austro-Asiatic migration brought O2a-carrying men from Southeast Asia into eastern India, while Tibeto-Burman speakers carrying O and D haplogroups entered the northeast from southern China and Myanmar. These migrations added another layer of diversity to the already complex Indian genetic landscape.

Caste, Tribe, and Haplogroup: Social Stratification in Y-DNA

One of the more sensitive but scientifically important findings in Indian Y-DNA research is the correlation between caste rank and haplogroup frequencies. Across virtually every region of India, a consistent pattern emerges:

• Brahmin populations show the highest R1a frequencies within any given region, typically 35-70%, reflecting the association between steppe ancestry and upper-caste Indo-Aryan communities.
• Kshatriya and mercantile castes show intermediate R1a (20-40%), with higher contributions from H, L, and J2 than seen in Brahmins.
• Other Backward Classes (OBC) show lower R1a (10-25%) and higher indigenous haplogroups (H, L), reflecting a deeper indigenous South Asian paternal ancestry.
• Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes typically show the lowest R1a (5-15%) and the highest frequencies of indigenous haplogroups like H-M69 (30-55%) and, in eastern India, O2a (up to 70% in some Munda tribes).

This caste-haplogroup correlation does not mean that any caste is genetically "pure" or that caste has a simple genetic basis. All Indian populations are genetically mixed, and there is enormous overlap between caste groups. The pattern instead reflects historical processes: the Bronze Age steppe migrants who brought R1a-Z93 appear to have established themselves disproportionately in upper social strata, while indigenous paternal lineages remained more predominant in lower social strata. Over three millennia of endogamy (marriage within caste) has preserved these ancestral frequency differences rather than homogenizing them.

What Your Y-DNA Haplogroup Can Tell You

If you are a man considering a Y-DNA test through Helixline or another service, here is what your haplogroup result might reveal about your paternal ancestry:

• R1a-Z93 or R1a-L657: Your direct paternal line traces back to the Bronze Age steppe pastoralists who entered South Asia around 2000-1500 BCE. This lineage is most common among upper-caste Indo-Aryan-speaking populations of northern and western India.
• H-M69: Your paternal line represents one of the oldest indigenous South Asian lineages, continuously present in the subcontinent for approximately 30,000-40,000 years. This is the most common haplogroup in India overall.
• L-M20: Your paternal ancestry is deeply rooted in the western Indian subcontinent, with this lineage dating back approximately 25,000-30,000 years. L-M20 may have been a major lineage in the Indus Valley Civilization region.
• J2-M172: Your paternal line connects you to Neolithic-era interactions between South Asia and West Asia. This lineage is found from the Mediterranean to India, with notable concentrations in South India and among certain trading communities.
• O2a-M95: Your direct paternal line traces to the Austro-Asiatic migration from Southeast Asia into eastern India approximately 3,500-4,000 years ago. This is the signature haplogroup of Munda tribal communities.
• R2-M124: Your paternal lineage has ancient roots in South or Central Asia, with R2 being a haplogroup found at notable frequencies in western and central India. Its exact migration history is still being researched.
• C-M130/C-M356: Your paternal line may represent one of the very earliest Out-of-Africa lineages to reach South Asia, dating back approximately 50,000 years.
• D-M174: If you carry this haplogroup in mainland India, your paternal line connects you either to northeastern Tibeto-Burman populations or to one of the most ancient lineages in South Asia, also found among the Andamanese.

Limitations and Considerations

While Y-DNA haplogroups provide fascinating insights into paternal ancestry, several important caveats should be kept in mind:

• Y-DNA traces only one line: Your Y-DNA haplogroup represents just one ancestor in each generation going back through your father's father's father, etc. It says nothing about the hundreds of other ancestral lines contributing to your genome.
• Haplogroups are not ethnicities: A haplogroup does not define your ethnic identity, caste, or community. People of the same haplogroup may belong to very different social and cultural groups.
• Frequencies are averages: The state-level frequencies discussed in this article are averages across diverse populations. Your individual community may have a very different haplogroup profile.
• Women do not carry Y-DNA: Y-DNA haplogroup testing is only available for biological males. Women can learn about their paternal lineage through a male relative (father, brother, paternal uncle).
• Research is ongoing: Indian population genetics is an active field of research. New studies may refine the frequency estimates and migration models discussed here.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the most common Y-DNA haplogroup in India?

The most common Y-DNA haplogroup in India overall is H-M69, found at frequencies of approximately 20-30% when all populations are averaged together. It is especially prevalent among Dravidian-speaking populations and tribal communities in central and southern India, where it can exceed 40%. R1a-M17 is the second most common at approximately 15-25% pan-India, but it is the dominant haplogroup among upper-caste Indo-Aryan-speaking populations of the north and northwest, where it can reach 50-70% in Brahmin communities.

Do Y-DNA haplogroups vary significantly by Indian state?

Yes, Y-DNA haplogroup frequencies vary dramatically across Indian states. Punjab and Haryana show R1a above 40%, while Tamil Nadu and Kerala have R1a below 10% but H-M69 and L-M20 each above 20%. Northeast Indian states like Nagaland and Mizoram are dominated by haplogroup O at 50-80%, which is nearly absent in western India. These geographic patterns closely track the boundaries between India's four major language families: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Burman.

Can Y-DNA haplogroups reveal migration history?

Absolutely. Y-DNA haplogroups are among the most powerful genetic markers for tracing ancient paternal migrations. Each haplogroup originated in a specific geographic region and expanded through male-line migration. R1a-Z93 traces the Bronze Age steppe pastoralist migration into India around 2000-1500 BCE. H-M69 and L-M20 are indigenous lineages dating back tens of thousands of years. J2 reflects Neolithic-era connections with West Asia. O2a marks the Austro-Asiatic migration from Southeast Asia. By mapping these haplogroups across populations, scientists reconstruct the layered history of male-line migration into and within the subcontinent.

What is the most common Y-DNA haplogroup in South India?

In South India, the most common Y-DNA haplogroups are H-M69 (25-40%), L-M20 (15-30%), and J2 (10-20%). Together, these three haplogroups account for 50-80% of paternal lineages in Dravidian-speaking populations of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. R1a is present but at much lower frequencies (5-15%) compared to North India, and is found mainly among Brahmin communities. The dominance of H-M69 and L-M20 in South India reflects the deep indigenous ancestry of Dravidian populations.

Conclusion

The distribution of Y-DNA haplogroups across Indian states tells a story of extraordinary complexity and depth. India's genetic landscape has been shaped by at least five major layers of paternal migration: the initial Out-of-Africa settlement over 50,000 years ago, the indigenous diversification that produced the H-M69 and L-M20 lineages, Neolithic-era connections with West Asia that brought J2, the Bronze Age steppe migration that introduced R1a-Z93, and the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman migrations that contributed O2a and D from the east.

Each Indian state, each community, and each individual carries a unique combination of these ancient paternal legacies. Understanding your Y-DNA haplogroup is like reading one page of a vast historical manuscript - it reveals the specific paternal migration path that connects you to a particular chapter of India's deep past.

The data presented here are averages and estimates drawn from published research, and the field of Indian population genetics continues to evolve rapidly. As more communities are sampled and more ancient DNA is recovered, our understanding of India's Y-DNA landscape will only become richer and more detailed.

Ready to discover which chapter of India's migration history your paternal line belongs to? Order your Helixline DNA kit and uncover the deep history written in your Y chromosome.